Importance of Understanding Biological Basis of Behaviour

Importance of Understanding Biological Basis of Behaviour This essay will first of all attempt to briefly distinguish between some of the bases of understanding behaviour. Next, the biological approach will be elaborated and this will be followed by a succinct evaluation of the strengths and criticisms of this approach. Behaviour can be understood from different bases (approaches). Among these include Behaviourist, Cognitive, Psychodynamic, Humanistic and Biological approaches (Glassman and Hadad, 2013). The behavioural approach assumes that behaviour is created or modified by environmental factors, irrespective of the mind (Chance, 2013). Vice versa, understanding behaviour from a cognitive basis involves the consideration of internal events (mediators) between a stimulus and behaviour. Contrary to the biological approach, these internal events are conceptual rather than physiological (Gardner, 2008). Similarly, the psychodynamic approach assumes that behaviour is shaped by internal mental processes. On the contrary, it focuses on the motivation of behaviour (intentionality). Such motivation influences personality and thereby influences behaviour (Glassman, Glassman and Hadad, 2008). From a humanistic perspective, behaviour is understood from an individual’s subjective experiences (phenomeno logical viewpoint), a free will of individuals to behave which is not influenced by immediate or past stimuli (the capacity of choice) and the value individuals place on their experiences and actions (the role of meaning) (Fernald, 2008). In the biological approach, behaviour is as result of neurological, genetic and physiological processes. The brain and the central nervous system play a key role in determining behaviour. Changes in the growth of the brain are genetically determined and result in psychological and behavioural development. A well-functioning nervous system depicts normal behaviour. Abnormal behaviour is usually characterised by bodily (organic) or genetic disorders, chemical imbalances, brain injury or mental illness. Consequently, the modes of treatment include the use of drugs, psychosurgery and electroconvulsive therapy. These are used to treat the underlying causes of the illness or to relieve symptoms (Sanders, 2014). There are various strengths in understanding behaviour from a biological basis (approach). The biological basis of understanding behaviour has improved our understanding of behaviour. It has successfully proved the impact of genetic factors in explaining behaviour (including individual differences) such as intelligence and some mental disorders. For example, twin studies have shown that behaviour such as susceptibility to mental disorders (Posthuma and Polderman, 2013) and intelligence (FraniĆ¡ et al, 2014) is shaped by genetic factors. The biological approach to understanding behaviour often takes a reductionist approach. Hence, various experimental studies have provided useful results in understanding behaviour. For example, physiological and genetic studies have contributed immensely to our understanding of sleep (Wyatt et al, 1999, Allebrandt et al, 2011, Dauvilliers, Maret and Tafti, 2005). Understanding behaviour from a biological basis has been usefully applied in psychopathology. It has been beneficial in the use of chemotherapy to treat mental disorders such as depression, anxiety and schizophrenia (Rockstroh, 2001). Genetic counselling for couples is as a result of our understanding of the relation that exists between genes and behaviour. This could be of great relief for some couples who carry a gene that makes their children susceptible to a fatal disease (Harper, 2010). It is also believed that understanding behaviour in its biological context could help in generalisations between animals and humans (Larsson, 2003). Despite these strengths, the biological basis of understanding behaviour faces some criticisms. It is argued that a thorough understanding of behaviour cannot be established from studying only biological factors. Social, cultural and psychological factors have also been shown to have an influence on behaviour. It has therefore been criticised for not including these factors in explaining behaviour (Glassman and Hadad, 2013). Furthermore, some have stressed that behaviour is a process and not a substance as portrayed in the biological approach (Greenberg, 2011, Overton, 2006). From a biological perspective, there is great emphasis of the role of genetic factors in shaping behaviour. However, this relation has been shown to be indirect and understood poorly. For example, a twin study by Plomin et al. (1990) found that television watching is influenced by genetic factors, but it is unclear how genes cause such effect. In conclusion, understanding behaviour from only a biological basis seems inadequate. This calls for consideration of other approaches to address its limitations. Total word count: 699 References: Allebrandt, K., Amin, N., Mà ¼ller-Myhsok, B., Esko, T., Teder-Laving, M., Azevedo, R., Hayward, C., Van Mill, J., Vogelzangs, N. and Green, E. (2011) A KATP channel gene effect on sleep duration: from genome-wide association studies to function in Drosophila. Molecular Psychiatry [online]. 18 (1), pp.122-132. [Accessed 16 October 2014] Chance, P. (2013) Learning and Behavior. Cengage Learning. Dauvilliers, Y., Maret, S. and Tafti, M. (2005) Genetics of normal and pathological sleep in humans. Sleep Medicine Reviews [online]. 9 (2), pp.91-100. [Accessed 14 October 2014] Fernald, L.D. (2008) Psychology: Six Perspectives. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. FraniĆ¡, S., Dolan, C.V., van Beijsterveldt, C.E., Pol, H.E.H., Bartels, M. and Boomsma, D.I. (2014) Genetic and Environmental Stability of Intelligence in Childhood and Adolescence. Twin Research and Human Genetics [online]. 17 (03), pp.151-163. [Accessed 19 October 2014] Gardner, H. (2008) The Minds New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution. Basic books. Glassman, W., Glassman, W.E. and Hadad, M. (2008) Approaches to Psychology. McGraw-Hill International. Glassman, W.E. and Hadad, M. (2013) Approaches to Psychology. London: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Greenberg, G. (2011) The failure of biogenetic analysis in psychology: Why psychology is not a biological science. Research in Human Development [online]. 8 (3-4), pp.173-191. [Accessed 14 October 2014] Harper, P.S. (2010) Practical Genetic Counselling. Hodder Arnold London. Larsson, K. (2003) My way to biological psychology. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology [online]. 44 (3), pp.173-187. [Accessed 25 October 2014] Overton, W.F. (2006) Developmental psychology: Philosophy, concepts, methodology. Handbook of Child Psychology. Plomin, R., Corley, R., DeFries, J.C. and Fulker, D.W. (1990) Individual differences in television viewing in early childhood: Nature as well as nurture. Psychological Science [online]. 1 (6), pp.371-377. [Accessed 29 October 2014] Posthuma, D. and Polderman, T.J. (2013) What have we learned from recent twin studies about the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders? Current Opinion in Neurology [online]. 26 (2), pp.111-121. [Accessed 30 October 2014] Rockstroh, B. (2001) Contributions of biological psychology to psychopathology. Biological Psychology [online]. 57 (1), pp.1-4. [Accessed 20 October 2014] Sanders, R.L. (2014) Biological Psychology. London: Learning Matters. Wyatt, J.K., Ritz-De Cecco, A., Czeisler, C.A. and Dijk, D.J. (1999) Circadian temperature and melatonin rhythms, sleep, and neurobehavioral function in humans living on a 20-h day. The American Journal of Physiology [online]. 277 (4 Pt 2), pp.R1152-63. [Accessed 30 October 2014] 1

Congo Poverty

Poverty has worsened in the Republic of Congo since the 1980s and half the country’s people now live below the poverty line. This average, however, masks wide geographic and economic inequalities. Most of the country’s poor people (64. 8 per cent) live in rural areas and women are among the hardest hit by poverty. In 2006, more than a third of children under five in rural areas suffered from malnutrition. Access to water is also poor in rural areas where only 11 per cent of people can get water compared with 75 per cent of people in urban areas.Rural people also have a higher unemployment rate with close to 50 per cent of the economically active rural population being out of work. Young people and vulnerable groups are particularly hard hit. The country’s turbulent history — a troubled transition from centralized planning under a Marxist government to a market economy, together with economic mismanagement, military coups and brutal civil conflict during th e 1990s — have all left their marks. The vital national rail line and adjacent rural roads forming the Congo's economic lifeline were ruined.At the height of the conflict, about one third of the country's people were displaced. The chronic financial crisis became acute and the financial sector came close to collapse. Poverty became deeper in the rural areas of the Congo where poor people are now powerless, vulnerable and isolated. Transportation costs are very high which seriously hampers small producers’ access to markets. HIV/AIDS affects 5. 3 per cent of the population, but affects the 15-49 year age group the most and is an obstacle to reducing poverty in the Congo.An estimated 90,000 adults and children were living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2003. The government supports a multi-agency initiative implementing a ten-year programme to assist people living with HIV/AIDS. Who are the Congo's rural poor people? Although half the country’s people live below the poverty line, the poorest people are in rural areas where they earn a livelihood as are small-scale farmers and fishers. There are also poor people living in peri-urban areas who have no access to land. Because of the low population density in rural areas, access to land is not a major problem for most rural people.But in peri-urban areas, where small plots can be profitable, land has become a scarce resource, and people without access to land or off-farm employment are the poorest of the poor. The most vulnerable of all poor people are young people and women, who are the primary agricultural producers and processors. Where are they? Poverty is most severe in the Congo's rural areas where people are more isolated and there is little investment. Why are they poor? Despite the country’s huge potential, there are several causes of the poverty in the Congo: * microfinance in rural areas is almost non-existent; low agricultural productivity as a result of traditional cultivation m ethods, insufficient use of inputs such as improved seeds and planting materials and fertilizers; * vehicles, access roads, crossings and navigation channels are in very poor condition which makes transport and other costs high; * difficulties in marketing because of weak collection and distribution organizations, basic processing equipment and a frail communication system connecting producers, traders and consumers. Not to be mixed with the neighboring Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has become the poorest country in the world as of 2010.Democratic Republic of the Congo was known as Zaire until 1997. Congo is the largest country in the world that has French as an official language – the population of D. R Congo is about six million larger than the population of France (71 million people in D. R Congo vs 65 million in France). The Second Congo War beginning in 1998 has devastated the country. The war that involves at least 7 foreign armies is the deadl iest conflict in the world since World War II – by 2008 the Second Congo War and its aftermath had killed 5. 4 million people. Congo Poverty Poverty has worsened in the Republic of Congo since the 1980s and half the country’s people now live below the poverty line. This average, however, masks wide geographic and economic inequalities. Most of the country’s poor people (64. 8 per cent) live in rural areas and women are among the hardest hit by poverty. In 2006, more than a third of children under five in rural areas suffered from malnutrition. Access to water is also poor in rural areas where only 11 per cent of people can get water compared with 75 per cent of people in urban areas.Rural people also have a higher unemployment rate with close to 50 per cent of the economically active rural population being out of work. Young people and vulnerable groups are particularly hard hit. The country’s turbulent history — a troubled transition from centralized planning under a Marxist government to a market economy, together with economic mismanagement, military coups and brutal civil conflict during th e 1990s — have all left their marks. The vital national rail line and adjacent rural roads forming the Congo's economic lifeline were ruined.At the height of the conflict, about one third of the country's people were displaced. The chronic financial crisis became acute and the financial sector came close to collapse. Poverty became deeper in the rural areas of the Congo where poor people are now powerless, vulnerable and isolated. Transportation costs are very high which seriously hampers small producers’ access to markets. HIV/AIDS affects 5. 3 per cent of the population, but affects the 15-49 year age group the most and is an obstacle to reducing poverty in the Congo.An estimated 90,000 adults and children were living with HIV/AIDS at the end of 2003. The government supports a multi-agency initiative implementing a ten-year programme to assist people living with HIV/AIDS. Who are the Congo's rural poor people? Although half the country’s people live below the poverty line, the poorest people are in rural areas where they earn a livelihood as are small-scale farmers and fishers. There are also poor people living in peri-urban areas who have no access to land. Because of the low population density in rural areas, access to land is not a major problem for most rural people.But in peri-urban areas, where small plots can be profitable, land has become a scarce resource, and people without access to land or off-farm employment are the poorest of the poor. The most vulnerable of all poor people are young people and women, who are the primary agricultural producers and processors. Where are they? Poverty is most severe in the Congo's rural areas where people are more isolated and there is little investment. Why are they poor? Despite the country’s huge potential, there are several causes of the poverty in the Congo: * microfinance in rural areas is almost non-existent; low agricultural productivity as a result of traditional cultivation m ethods, insufficient use of inputs such as improved seeds and planting materials and fertilizers; * vehicles, access roads, crossings and navigation channels are in very poor condition which makes transport and other costs high; * difficulties in marketing because of weak collection and distribution organizations, basic processing equipment and a frail communication system connecting producers, traders and consumers. Not to be mixed with the neighboring Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has become the poorest country in the world as of 2010.Democratic Republic of the Congo was known as Zaire until 1997. Congo is the largest country in the world that has French as an official language – the population of D. R Congo is about six million larger than the population of France (71 million people in D. R Congo vs 65 million in France). The Second Congo War beginning in 1998 has devastated the country. The war that involves at least 7 foreign armies is the deadl iest conflict in the world since World War II – by 2008 the Second Congo War and its aftermath had killed 5. 4 million people.

How Organisations Has Been Affected By Two Contrasting Economic Environments

Task 1)When the country is in the recession everybody is trying to save money and go to shops which are cheap. Some companies cut jobs and are trying to maximise profit. Lidl is making lots of profit in the recession therefore they don’t have to worry that there is a recession because everybody is trying to save money and people are going to cheap shops and Lidl is one of them and because of that they are making lots of money in recession. Lidl is in England for a very long time and when recession came, it made tens of thousands of people to try Lidl for the first time.The same thing happened to Aldi. Lidl and Aldi have cheap products at high quality. When the country is at boom then lots of business like Lidl hire lots of people therefore there is high employment level and their wages will go high as well because they want to attract more people because the business can afford to hire lots of people therefore the business will run in a very good way also businesses are invest ing more to make the business expand and meet peoples demands, and in a boom people have lots of money which they want to spend on their want and needs and because of that shops will make lots of profit.Task 2)Human resources in a recession have to make hard decisions, one of them is cutting jobs because they can't afford to have lots of employees, finance department have to calculate how much money they can spend on the business and try not to bankrupt therefore they would have to change their suppliers on cheaper suppliers which have less quality products as they would have from their normal suppliers and that could affect their business because they could lose customers. The company would have to stop investing and save money for their suppliers and pay their employees.He company would have to stop investing and save money for their suppliers and pay their employees. If the country is at the recovery, then Human resources might start hiring new people but not a lot like they had at boom therefore unemployment will fall a little. Finances will have to consider about increasing production and start investing into the business again, demand would rise and because of that sales will rise as well therefore slowly the business will be making profit.

Where to Find Full-Text Sociology Journals Online

Finding full-text sociology journals online can be difficult, especially for students with limited access to academic libraries or online databases. There are a number of sociology journals that offer free full-text articles, which may be especially useful for students who do not have easy access to an academic library. The following journals offer access to a selection of full-text articles online. The Annual Review of SociologyThe Annual Review of Sociology, in publication since 1975, covers the significant developments in the field of Sociology. Topics covered in the journal include major theoretical and methodological developments as well as current research in the major subfields. Review chapters typically cover social processes, institutions and culture, organizations, political and economic sociology, stratification, demography, urban sociology, social policy, historical sociology, and major developments in sociology in other regions of the world. The Future of ChildrenThis publications aim is to disseminate information on issues related to childrens well-being. The target of the journal is a multidisciplinary audience of national leaders, including policymakers, practitioners, legislators, executives, and professionals in the public and private sectors. Each issue has a focal theme. Topics covered have included the protection of children, children and poverty, welfare to work, and special education for children with disabilities. Each issue also contains an executive summary with recommendations and a summary of articles. Sociology of Sport OnlineSociology of Sport Online is an online journal that deals with the sociological examination of sport, physical education and coaching. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive HealthPerspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health (formerly, Family Planning Perspectives) provides the latest peer-reviewed, policy-relevant research and analysis on sexual and reproductive health and rights in the United States and other industrialized countries. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular CultureThe Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture is a scholarly record of research and opinion on the intersection of crime, criminal justice, and popular culture. Western Criminology ReviewThe Western Criminology Review is the official peer reviewed publication of the Western Society of Criminology which is devoted to the scientific study of crime. Keeping with the Societys mission -- as stated by the president of WSC -- the journal is meant to provide a forum for publication and discussion of theory, research, policy, and practice in the interdisciplinary fields of criminology and criminal justice. Globalization and HealthGlobalization and Health is an open access, peer-reviewed, online journal that provides a platform for research, knowledge sharing and debate on the topic of globalization and its effects on health, both positive and negative. Globalization essentially refers to anything supra-territorial, anything that transcends the geopolitical boundaries of the nation-state. As a process it is being driven by liberalisation of markets and technological advancements. In essence, it is about human proximity -- people are now living in each others metaphorical pockets. Behavior and Social IssuesBehavior and Social Issues is an open-access, peer-reviewed, interdisciplinary journal that serves as a primary scholarly outlet for articles that advance the scientific analysis of human social behavior, particularly with regard to understanding and influencing important social problems. The primary intellectual frameworks for the journal are the natural science of behavior, and the sub-discipline of cultural analytic science. The journal is particularly interested in publishing work related to issues with social justice, human rights, and environmental implications, but all significant social issues are of interest. IDEA: A Journal of Social IssuesIDEA is a peer-reviewed electronic journal created for the exchange of ideas related mainly, to cults, mass movements, autocratic power, war, genocide, democide, holocaust, and murder. International Journal of Child, Youth, and Family StudiesThe International Journal of Child, Youth and Family Studies (IJCYFS) is a peer reviewed, open access, interdisciplinary, cross-national journal that is committed to scholarly excellence in the field of research about and services for children, youth, families and their communities. Social MedicineSocial Medicine is a bilingual, academic, open-access journal published since 2006 by the Department of Family and Social Medicine at Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine and the Latin American Social Medicine Association (ALAMES).